READING EALR 1
The student understands and uses different skills and strategies to read
Understand and apply content/academic vocabulary critical to the meaning of the text, including vocabularies relevant to different contexts, cultures, and communities
* Integrate new vocabulary from informational/expository text and literary/narrative text, including text from a variety of cultures and communities (e.g., salon as a historical reference to political gatherings as opposed to a beauty salon), into written and oral communication
* Explain the meaning of content-specific vocabulary words (e.g., regeneration, isolationism, emancipation, polarized)
* Select, from multiple choices, the meaning of a word identified in the text
* Transfer knowledge of vocabulary learned in content areas to comprehend other grade-level informational/expository text and literary/narrative text (e.g., the concept of parallel in mathematics to understand parallelism)
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READING EALR 2 The student understands the meaning of what is read.
Component 2.1 Demonstrate evidence of reading comprehension
Apply comprehension monitoring strategies for informational and technical materials, complex narratives, and expositions: synthesize ideas from selections to make predictions and inferences
* Make inferences based on implicit and explicit information drawn from prior knowledge and text; provide justification for inferences
* Make predictions and inferences about an author’s beliefs and cite text-based evidence to support predictions/inferences (e.g., find text passages that support an inference that the author advocates economic change)
* Read several accounts of the same event and make inferences about the impact each would have on the reader (e.g., discuss the emotional impact of a journal entry by a soldier’s parent, a letter from a Union or Confederate soldier, and a newspaper article describing a Civil War battle)
* Select, from multiple choices, a prediction, inference, or assumption that could be made from the text
* Organize information to support a prediction or inference in a self-created graphic organizer
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Component 2.2 Understand and apply knowledge of text components to comprehend text
Analyze story elements
* Interpret the interdependence and interaction of characters, theme, setting, conflict, and resolution (e.g., in a short story, novel, epic poem)
* Compare/contrast how recurring themes are treated by diverse authors or in different genres
* Select, from multiple choices, a word or sentence that best describes a specific story element (e.g., character, conflict, resolution)
Apply understanding of text organizational structures
* Recognize and use previously taught organizational structures (description, comparison and contrast, sequential order, chronological order, cause and effect, order of importance, process/procedural, concept/definition, problem/solution, episodic, and generalization/principle) to aid comprehension
* Independently apply understanding of text structure to the acquisition, organization, and application of information
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Component 2.3 Expand comprehension by analyzing, interpreting, and synthesizing information and ideas in literary and informational text
Analyze informational/expository text and literary/narrative text for similarities and differences and cause and effect relationships
* Compare conclusions drawn from multiple sources to determine similarities and differences
* Integrate information from multiple sources to draw conclusions that go beyond those found in individual sources
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that describes how a character’s feelings compare to those of the author/poet about the same subject
* Use literary themes within and across texts to interpret current issues, events, and/or how they relate to self
* Explain how an action leads to long-lasting effects (e.g., environmental, economic, and/or political impact of off-shore drilling or strip mining; socioeconomic and psychological makeup of African-American individuals, families, and communities as a result of slavery)
Evaluate informational materials, including electronic sources, for effectiveness
* Judge the usefulness of information based on relevance to purpose, source, objectivity, copyright date, cultural and world perspective (e.g., editorials), and support the decision
Evaluate the author’s use of literary devices to enhance comprehension
* Judge the effectiveness of the author’s use of literary devices and explain how they are used to convey meaning
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence from the story/poem/selection that is an example of a specific literary device
Synthesize information from a variety of sources
* Integrate information from different sources to research and complete a project
* Integrate information from different sources to form conclusions about author’s assumptions, biases, credibility, cultural and social perspectives, or world views
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READING EALR 2 The student understands the meaning of what is read.
Component 2.4 Think critically and analyze author’s use of language, style, purpose, and perspective in literary and informational text
Analyze informational/expository text and literary/narrative text to draw conclusions and develop insights
* Draw conclusions from grade-level text (e.g., the most important idea the author is trying to make in the story/poem/selection, what inspiration might be drawn from the story/poem/selection, who might benefit from reading the story/poem/selection)
* Select, from multiple choices, a statement that best represents the most important conclusion that may be drawn from the selection
Analyze author’s purpose and evaluate how an author’s style of writing influences different audiences
* Compare and contrast selected authors’ styles of writing to achieve a similar purpose
* Draw conclusions about style, tone, mood, meaning of prose, poetry, and/or drama based on the author’s word choice and use of figurative language
* Explain why an author uses particular language to create an intended effect (e.g., foreign words, dialect, connotative words, irony, rhetorical devices, simile, and metaphor), citing text-based evidence
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that explains why an author includes a specific technique
* Examine the author’s use of language registry (e.g., frozen, formal, consultative, casual, intimate) and how this influences meaning and different audiences
* Judge the effectiveness of the author’s use of language to create an intended effect
Analyze and evaluate text for validity and accuracy
* Compare and contrast the logic (assumptions and beliefs) and use of evidence (existing and missing information; primary sources and secondary sources) used by two authors presenting similar or opposing arguments (e.g., articles by two political columnists that address the same issue)
* Judge the accuracy of the information in a text, citing text-based evidence, author’s use of expert authority, author’s credibility to defend the evaluation
Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the author’s use of persuasive devices to influence an audience
* Identify the intended effects of persuasive vocabulary (e.g., loaded words, exaggeration, emotional words, euphemisms) that the author uses to influence readers’ opinions or actions
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that explains why an author uses a specific persuasive device
* Identify the intended effects of persuasive strategies the author uses to influence readers’ perspectives (e.g., peer pressure, bandwagon, repetition, testimonial, transfer)
Analyze text to generalize, express insight, or respond by connecting to other texts or situations
* Generalize about universal themes, human nature, cultural or historical perspectives, etc., from reading multiple texts
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that represents a generalization that can be made from the story/poem/selection
* Provide a response to text that expresses an insight (e.g., author’s perspective, the nature of conflict) or use text-based information to solve a problem not identified in the text (e.g., use information from a variety of sources to write an editorial or make a presentation about world health issues)
Analyze and evaluate the presentation and development of ideas and concepts within, among, and beyond multiple texts
* Differentiate how a concept is presented and/or developed in and beyond texts (e.g., the role fear plays in war, prejudice, relationships, personal safety)
* Compare the development of an idea or concept in multiple texts; decide which is best presented and developed and support the decision with text-based evidence
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that describes the most important idea, concept, or conclusion that can be drawn from the selection
Analyze and evaluate the reasoning and ideas underlying author’s beliefs and assumptions within multiple texts
* Analyze literary/narrative text and informational/expository text to show how they reflect the heritage, traditions, and beliefs of the author
* Compare and contrast readings on the same topics by explaining how the authors reach the same or different conclusions based on differences and similarities in evidence, reasoning, assumptions, purposes, beliefs, and biases
* Select, from multiple choices, a sentence that describes the reasoning of a character or an author, both faulty and logical
* Make judgments about how effectively an author has supported his/her belief and/or assumptions, citing text-based evidence
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READING EALR 3
The student reads different materials for a variety of purposes.
Read to learn new information
Analyze web-based and other resource materials (including primary sources and secondary sources) for relevance in answering research questions
* Examine materials to determine appropriate primary sources and secondary sources to use for investigating a question, topic, or issue (e.g., encyclopedia and other reference materials, pamphlets, book excerpts, newspaper and magazine articles, letters to an editor, oral records, research summaries, scientific and trade journals)
Read to perform a task
Apply understanding of complex information, including functional documents, to perform a task
* Read instructions, credit card or job applications, legal documents such as contracts, policies, and timetables, to perform everyday life functions (e.g., find employment, research colleges or trade schools, purchase goods and services, take vacations, locate people and places)
Read for career applications
Apply appropriate reading strategies for interpreting technical and non-technical documents used in job-related settings
* Select, use, monitor, and adjust appropriate strategies for different reading purposes (e.g., skim/scan for big ideas, close reading for details, inferring information from graphs and charts)
* Read professional-level materials, including electronic information, that match career or academic interests and demonstrate understanding of the content
* Select and use appropriate skills for reading a variety of documents (e.g., tables, blueprints, electronic technology manuals, bills of lading, medical charts, mechanical manuals)
Read for literary experience in a variety of genres
Analyze traditional and contemporary literature written in a variety of genres
* Respond to literature written in a variety of genres (e.g., explain why certain genres are best suited to convey a specific message or invoke a particular response from the reader)
* Analyze the characteristics and structural elements/essential attributes in a variety of poetic forms (e.g., epic, sonnet, ballad, haiku, free verse)
Read for literary experience in a variety of genres
Understand and analyze recurring themes in literature
* Identify motivations and reactions of literary characters from different cultures or historical periods when confronting similar conflicts
* Identify and analyze recurring themes in literature across literary genres (e.g., themes of good vs. evil or heroism as expressed in plays, poetry, short stories)
Read for literary experience in a variety of genres
Analyze how great literary works from a variety of cultures contribute to the understanding of self, others, and the world
* Compare and contrast traditional, classic, and/or contemporary works of literature that deal with similar topics and problems (e.g., uses of power, family and community structures; meaning of loyalty, freedom, and responsibility)
* Relate literary works to the traditions, themes, and issues of the era they represent (e.g., the generation gap, women and children in the workforce)
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READING EALR 4
The student sets goals and evaluates progress to improve reading
Assess reading strengths and need for improvement
Evaluate reading progress and apply goal setting strategies and monitor progress toward meeting reading goals
* Set goals for reading and develop a reading improvement plan
* Track reading progress through the use of such tools as portfolios, learning logs, self-scoring rubrics, or strategy charts
Develop interests and share reading experiences
Evaluate books and authors to share reading experiences with others
* Discuss responses to literary experiences and/or ideas gleaned from informational/expository text with others
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Student Writers...
In ninth and 10th grades, students write independently with confidence and proficiency. They explore, interpret, and reflect on a wide range of experiences, texts, ideas, and opinions. Students choose the most appropriate form of writing to achieve the desired result for the intended audience. As students persevere through complex writing projects, they write sophisticated, complex literary texts and/or organized, fluent, and well-supported nonfiction. Complex forms of punctuation are used accurately and grammar/language is manipulated to enhance writing. Vocabulary is carefully chosen to create vivid mental images or elaborate on ideas. Students maintain a portfolio or collection of their own writing and continue to regard writing as an essential tool to further their own learning in and beyond high school.
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WRITING EALR 1
The student understands and uses a writing process
* Gathers, analyzes, synthesizes, and organizes information from a variety of sources (e.g., interviews, websites, books, field notes)
* Maintains a log or journal (electronic or handwritten) to collect and explore ideas; records observations, dialogues, and/or descriptions for later use as a basis for informational, persuasive, or literary writing
* Uses prewriting stage to generate ideas, determine purpose, analyze audience, select form, research background information, formulate a thesis, and organize text
Produces draft(s)
Analyzes task and composes multiple drafts when appropriate
* Refers to prewriting plan
* Drafts according to audience, purpose, and time
* Drafts by hand and/or electronically
* Assesses draft and/or feedback, decides if multiple drafts are necessary, and justifies decision
Revises to improve text
Revises text, including changing words, sentences, paragraphs, and ideas
* Selects and uses effective revision tools or strategies based on project (e.g., sentence analysis form, revision criteria checklist, “find-and-replace” or “track changes” functions of word processing program)
* Rereads work several times and has a different focus for each reading (e.g., first reading — looking for the strength or effectiveness of an argument and organizational structure; second reading — considering appropriateness for audience and purpose; third reading — looking for clarity of persuasive language)
* Decides if revision is warranted
* Seeks and considers feedback from a variety of sources (e.g., teachers, peers, community members, editors)
* Records feedback using writing group procedure (e.g., partner revision)
* Evaluates and justifies the choice to use feedback in revisions or not (e.g., “I didn’t change my second example because...”)
* Revises typographical devices (e.g., bullets, numbered lists) to clarify text and to meet requirements of technical and content-area writing forms (e.g., résumé, business letter)
* Uses multiple resources to improve text (e.g., writing guide, assignment criteria, Internet grammar guide, peer, thesaurus, dictionary)
Edits Text
Edits for conventions (see 3.3)
* Identifies and corrects errors in conventions
* Uses appropriate references and resources (e.g., dictionary, writing/style guide, electronic spelling and grammar check, adult, peer)
* Edits with a critical eye, often using a self-initiated checklist or editing guide (e.g., editing symbols, paper submission guidelines)
* Proofreads final draft for errors
Publishes text to share with audience
Publishes in formats that are appropriate for specific audiences and purposes
* Selects from a variety of publishing options keeping in mind audience and purpose (e.g., website, literary magazine, blog, local newspaper)
* Publishes using a range of graphics and illustrative material (e.g., time lines, flow charts, political cartoons, diagrams)
* Publishes material in appropriate form (e.g., films, multimedia demonstrations, culminating projects) and format (e.g., credits in film, font size, section breaks in longer document)
* Publishes using visual and dramatic presentations (e.g., debate, mock election, monologue)
* Uses a variety of available technological resources (e.g., charts, overheads, word processor, photo software, presentation software) to produce, design, and publish a professional-looking final product
Adjusts writing process as necessary
Applies understanding of the recursive nature of writing process
* Revises at any stage of process
* Edits as needed at any stage
Adjusts writing process as necessary
Uses collaborative skills to adapt writing process
* Delegates parts of process to team members (e.g., in prewriting, one team member interviews and one team member brainstorms possible sections)
* Collaborates on drafting, revising, and editing
* Collaborates on final layout and publishing/presenting (e.g., yearbook, literary magazine)
Adjusts writing process as necessary
Uses knowledge of time constraints to adjust writing process
* Adapts time allotted for data gathering and number of drafts for shorter projects
* Writes to meet a deadline
* Creates a management timeline/ flow chart for written projects (e.g., Thirteenth-Year Plan, exit project, oral histories)
* Decreases time for prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing when working on in-class, on-demand pieces (e.g., essay exams)
* Increases time for prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing when working on longer written projects (e.g., literary analysis, research paper)
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WRITING EALR 2
The student writes in a variety of forms for different audiences and purposes
Adapts writing for a variety of audiences
Applies understanding of multiple and varied audiences to write effectively
* Identifies an intended audience
* Analyzes the audience to meet its needs (e.g., uses tone appropriate to culture, age, and gender of audience)
* Respects the cultural backgrounds of potential audiences (e.g., topic, word choice, perspective)
* Describes how a particular audience may interpret a text (e.g., eliminating biased language that might be offensive to the audience)
* Anticipates and addresses readers’ questions or arguments
Adapts writing for a variety of audiences
Applies understanding of multiple and varied audiences to write effectively
* Identifies an intended audience
* Analyzes the audience to meet its needs (e.g., uses tone appropriate to culture, age, and gender of audience)
* Respects the cultural backgrounds of potential audiences (e.g., topic, word choice, perspective)
* Describes how a particular audience may interpret a text (e.g., eliminating biased language that might be offensive to the audience)
* Anticipates and addresses readers’ questions or arguments
Writes in a variety of forms and genres
Uses a variety of forms/genres
* Integrates more than one form/genre in a single piece (e.g., a persuasive essay written using a first-person anecdote, a poem, a journal entry, research notes, a classroom discussion, and a letter)
* Maintains a log or portfolio to track variety of forms/genres used
* Produces a variety of new forms/genres
Examples:
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Academic
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Creative
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Business
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research paper
essay
parody
satire
literary analysis
review
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documentary
blog
monologue
fiction
memoir
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cover letter editorial
proposal
résumé
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Writes for career applications
Produces documents used in a career setting
* Collaborates with peers on long-term team writing projects (e.g., research paper for an exit project)
* Writes technical and nontechnical documents for career audiences (e.g., proposal, résumé, abstract), taking into consideration technical formats (e.g., bullets, numbering, subheadings, blank space)
* Selects and synthesizes information from technical and career documents for inclusion in writing (e.g., High School and Beyond Plan that includes information summarized from on-line vocational source or other informational text)
* Understands the importance of using a standard reference style consistently when writing reports or technical documents (e.g., MLA, APA, Turabian)
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WRITING EALR 3
The student writes clearly and effectively
Develops ideas and organizes writing
Analyzes ideas, selects a manageable topic, and elaborates using specific, relevant details and/or examples
* Presents a manageable thesis while maintaining a consistent focus in an individualized and purposeful manner (e.g., “Obtaining a driver’s license should not be tied to grades in school.”)
* Selects specific details relevant to the topic to extend ideas or develop elaboration (e.g., quotations, data, reasons, multiple examples that build on each other)
* Uses personal experiences, observations, and/or research from a variety of sources to support opinions and ideas (e.g., relevant data to support conclusions in math, science, social studies; appropriate researched information to explain or persuade; contrasting points of view to support a hypothesis or argument)
* Integrates the elements of character, setting, and plot to create a convincing fictional world
Develops ideas and organizes writing
Analyzes and selects effective organizational structures
* Writes unified, cohesive paragraphs (e.g., repetition of key terms; parallel structure)
* Selects from a variety of opening strategies and composes an engaging introduction (e.g., vivid, detailed description; historical/cultural background; contrasting situation)
* Selects from a variety of ending/ conclusion strategies and composes an effective conclusion that is more than a repetition of the introduction (e.g., prediction, anecdote, question)
* Uses transitional words and phrases between paragraphs to signal emphasis or show logical relationships among ideas (e.g., in fact … , consequently … , as a result … , on the other
hand …)
* Determines effective sequence between and within paragraphs by using transitions to emphasize points in an argument or show logical connections (e.g., inasmuch as … , possibly … , therefore … )
* Emphasizes key ideas through appropriate use of text features (e.g., headings, diagrams, graphs, bullets, blank space)
* Selects and uses effective organizational patterns as determined by purpose:
¨ varied placement of thesis for effect
¨ persuasion using comparisons (e.g., all similarities grouped together and all differences grouped together)
¨ explanations (e.g., scientific report pattern: introduction with hypothesis, materials and methods, data, conclusions)
¨ narrative (e.g., story within a story)
Uses appropriate style
Analyzes audience and purposes and uses appropriate voice
* Writes with a clearly defined voice appropriate to audience
* Writes in an individual, knowledgeable, and consistent voice in expository, technical, and persuasive writing
* Selects appropriate point of view for technical writing and/or specific content areas (e.g., third-person point of view for science lab write-ups, first person for field journals, second person for how-to technical manuals)
Uses appropriate style
Analyzes and selects language appropriate for specific audiences and purposes
* Selects and uses precise language to persuade or inform
* Selects and uses precise language in poetic and narrative writing
* Uses the vernacular appropriately
* Selects and uses specialized vocabulary relevant to a specific content area (e.g., plate tectonics, mitosis, photosynthesis)
* Selects and uses literary devices deliberately (e.g., extended metaphor, symbols, analogies)
* Selects and uses sound devices deliberately in prose and poetry (e.g., assonance, consonance)
* Considers connotation and denotation, including cultural connotation, when selecting words (police officer vs. cop, bias vs. prejudice)
Uses appropriate style
Uses a variety of sentences consistent with audience, purpose, and form
* Writes a variety of sentence structures and lengths to create a cadence appropriate for diverse audiences, purposes, and forms
* Writes a variety of sentence structures (e.g., absolutes to add detail and elaborate: “Fingers gripping the table, the student waited for the results”)
* Writes short sentences and phrases in technical writing
* Uses a variety of sentence structures (e.g., line breaks, stanzas, pattern, repetition) to purposefully shape a poem
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Uses legible handwriting
* Produces readable printing or cursive handwriting (e.g., size, spacing, formation, uppercase and lowercase)
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Spells accurately in final draft
* Uses spelling rules and patterns from previous grades
* Uses resources to correct own spelling
* Uses multiple strategies to spell
Examples:
affixes
foreign spellings
frequently misspelled word
homophones
roots
words from other languages
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Applies capitalization rules
* Uses capitalization rules from previous grades
* Uses resources to check capitalization
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Applies punctuation rules
* Uses punctuation rules from previous grades
* Uses commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses (e.g. The gym, which was built last year, is used every day.)
* Uses brackets around an editorial correction or to set off added words
* Uses the em dash (—) to indicate emphasis or a sudden break, to set off an introductory series, or to show interrupted speech
* Use appropriate punctuation when writing in other languages (e.g., René)
* Uses resources to check punctuation
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Applies usage rules
* Applies usage rules from previous grades
* Avoids dangling modifiers (e.g., “After I stood in line for hours, I discovered the tickets were sold out.” Incorrect: “After standing in line for hours, the tickets were sold out.” The second sentence makes it appear that the tickets were in line.)
* Uses who vs. whom correctly
* Uses that vs. which and that vs. who correctly
* Uses either … or and neither … nor correctly
* Uses many commonly confused words correctly (e.g., accept vs. except or can vs. may)
* Uses active voice except when passive voice is appropriate (e.g., active voice: “They saw it.” vs. passive voice: “It was seen by them.”)
* Uses parallel construction in clauses
· parallel: The coach told the players they should get plenty of sleep, they should eat well, and they should do some warm-up exercises
· not parallel: The coach told the players they should get plenty of sleep, that they should eat well, and to do some warm up exercises
* Uses resources to check usage
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Uses complete sentences in writing
* May use fragments in dialogue as appropriate
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Applies paragraph conventions
* Uses paragraph conventions (e.g., designated by indentation or block format, skipping lines between paragraphs)
* Uses textual markers (e.g., page numbers, footnotes, space for pictures)
Knows and applies writing conventions appropriate for the grade level
Applies conventional forms for citations
* Cites sources according to prescribed format (e.g., MLA, APA, Turabian)
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WRITING EALR 4
The student analyzes and evaluates the effectiveness of written work
Analyzes and evaluates others’ and own writing
Analyzes and evaluates writing using established criteria
* Critiques writing, independently and in groups, according to detailed scoring guide, sometimes developed collaboratively (e.g., checklist, rubric, continuum)
* Identifies persuasive elements in a peer’s writing and critiques the effectiveness (e.g., preponderance of evidence, citing experts, compromise solutions)
* Explains accuracy of content and vocabulary for specific curricular areas (e.g., accurate scientific terms regarding the effectiveness of the solution to the problem)
Analyzes and evaluates others’ and own writing
Analyzes and evaluates own writing using established criteria
* Explains strengths and weaknesses of own writing using criteria (e.g., content or performance standards, WASL or 6-trait rubrics)
* Rereads own work for the craft of writing (e.g., character development, irony, tone) as well as the content (e.g., quotations to support contentions)
* Uses criteria to choose and defend choices for a writing portfolio
* Provides evidence that goals have been met (e.g., selects pieces for culminating exhibition)
Sets goals for improvement
Evaluates and adjusts writing goals using criteria
* Monitors progress toward goals over time (e.g., “I need to try free verse next quarter.”)
* Analyzes progress (e.g., “My free verse needs better imagery.”)
* Evaluates goals (e.g., “I need to allow time for substantive revisions.”)
* Adjusts goals (e.g., “I will write a ballad next quarter.”)
* Maintains a written log of long-term goals (e.g., “I will try other genres, vary points of view, elaborate on evidence, and seek publication.”) and a portfolio of work
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affixes groups of syllables (e.g., prefixes, such as anti- or post-, and suffixes, such as –ly or –ment) which, when added to a word or a root, alter the meaning of the word.
alliteration the repetition of the same sound, usually of a consonant, at the beginning of two or more words of a sentence or line of poetry; used to draw attention to words or ideas or to create music with the language
alliterative having the quality of alliteration, as in poetry (e.g., Whitman’s line, “all summer in the sound of the sea”).
analogy this is a comparison of two pairs that have the same relationship. The key is to discover the relationship between the first pair, so you can choose the correct second pair (i.e., part-to-whole, opposites).
analysis separation of a whole into its parts for individual study.
analyze to compare in order to rank items by importance or to provide reasons. Identify the important parts that make up the whole and determine how the parts are related to one another.
anchor paper a student paper that is an example of a score point described on a rubric
anecdote a short narrative account of an interesting or humorous incident or a short narrative used as an example in expository or persuasive writing
anticipation guide a flexible strategy used to activate student’s thoughts and opinions about a topic and to link their prior knowledge to new material. For example, a series of teacher generated statements about a topic that students respond to and discuss before reading.
antonyms words that mean the opposite (e.g., light is an antonym of dark).
assonance a repetition of vowel sounds without the repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., dance, clap)
assumptions thoughts accepted as true without proof.
audience the expected readers of a text
author’s chair one student shares his or her writing orally with the entire class. this student then asks other students to either share a comment on what they thought or ask a question about the writing. use of an author’s chair gives children feedback on their writing, models conferencing, and develops a sense of community for writing
author’s craft stylistic choices an author/poet makes regarding elements such as organizational patterns, vocabulary, images, symbols, and point of view to produce a desired effect
author’s perspective the author’s subjective view as reflected in his/her written expression.
author’s purpose the reason an author writes, such as to entertain, inform, or persuade.
author’s style the author’s manner of helping the reader understand his/her written work.
author’s tone the author’s attitude as reflected in the manner of the author’s written expression.
automaticity ability to recognize a word (or series of words) in text effortlessly and rapidly.
blend in decoding, it is the reader’s act of sounding out and then combining the sounds in a word to assist in the pronunciation.
claim thesis or main point, especially in persuasive writing
class anthology collection of writing submitted by individual class members
cluster or word web a prewriting strategy where the writer maps thoughts about a topic using lines or arrows to show how ideas are related — intended to suggest an organizational pattern for main ideas and supporting details
cohesion (cohesive – adj.) logical connectedness that holds parts of text together
colloquial conversational, informal language
common consonant sounds speech sounds made by obstructing air flow and causes audible friction in varying amounts. Common consonant sounds include /b/, /k/, /d/, /f/, /g/, /h/, /j/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /kw/, /r/, /s/, /t/, /v/, /w/, /ks/, /y/, /z/.
common inflectional ending a common suffix that changes the form or function of a word, but not its basic meaning, such as ‘-ed’ in ‘sprayed’, ‘-ing’ in ‘gathering’.
common sight words words that are immediately recognized as a whole and do not require word analysis for identification. These words usually have irregular spellings.
common vowel patterns a vowel is the open sound. The mouth must be open to produce the sound of a vowel in a syllable. The most common vowel patterns are the sound/spellings that students encounter most frequently in text (e.g., a-e, ee, oi, ow, ou, oo).
comprehension monitoring strategies strategies used to monitor one’s reading by being aware of what one does understand and what one does not understand. The reader’s awareness determines which comprehension-repair strategies to apply.
comprehension repair strategies strategies used by a reader to regain comprehension as a result of comprehension monitoring. These strategies include but are not limited to re-reading, word recognition strategies, looking back, reading ahead, slowing down, paraphrasing by sections, using context, and taking notes. (Also referred to as “fix-up strategies”)
comprehension strategies a procedure or set of steps to follow in order to enhance text understanding (e.g., making inferences, predicting outcomes).
concepts of print insights about the ways in which print works. Basic concepts about print include; identification of a book’s front and back covers and title page, directionality (knowledge that readers and writers move from left to right, top to bottom, front to back); spacing (distance used to separate words); recognition of letters and words; connection between spoken and written language; understanding of the function of capitalization and punctuation; sequencing and locating skills.
conjunctive adverb adverbs that are used as conjunctions to join two complete sentences (e.g., moreover, however, therefore, furthermore, indeed, nevertheless, but, consequently)
consonance repetition of consonant sounds particularly at the ends of words (e.g., to kick the black rock)
content area vocabulary vocabulary found in specific subject areas (e.g., “integer” in math and “pioneer” in social studies).
content/academic text text from literature, science, social studies, math and other academic areas that students need to read to be academically successful in school.
content/academic vocabulary terms from literature, science, social studies, and math and other academic vocabulary that students need to know to be successful readers.
content-specific writing using writing as a tool for learning or writing within the common language of a discipline (e.g., writing in history or science, using the conventions appropriate to the discipline)
context clues information from the surrounding text that helps identify a word or word group. These could be words, phrases, sentences, illustrations, syntax, typographic signals, definitions, examples, and restatements.
context the social or cultural situation in which the spoken or written word occurs and is often used to refer to the material surrounding an unknown word.
conventions rules of standard English usage, capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and spelling; common features that have become traditional or expected within a specific form or discipline
culturally relevant reading materials to which students in a classroom can identify or relate. Depending on the student cultural make-up in a classroom, relevant reading material can change from year to year.
directionality the direction that print is read in a given culture (e.g. in Western languages, it is the understanding that print is read from left to right and top to bottom.
double-entry log a form of learning log or journal in which a student keeps notes on the left side of a double column and then responds, asks questions, analyzes the topic, or relates the information to other ideas on the right side
draft verb — compose, noun — preliminary version of a piece of writing
edit preparing writing for final draft by checking spelling, punctuation, capitalization, usage, paragraph indentation, neatness, and legibility
electronic sources resources for gathering information such as the internet, television, radio, CD ROM encyclopedia, and so on.
elements of style word choice, voice, sentence structure, and sentence length.
environmental print any print found in the physical environment, such as street signs, billboards, labels, business signs; the print of everyday life (e.g., the symbols, signs, numbers, and colors found in McDonald’s, Wal-Mart, Exxon, Pizza Hut, and 7-up and on websites), offering excellent entry points for young children to begin to learn to read, write, and do math
extended metaphor a metaphor continuing throughout an entire text; often used to create unity or rhetorical effect
figurative language word images and figures of speech not meant to be taken literally; used to enrich language (e.g., simile, metaphor, personification)
flashback interruption in the chronological sequence of a narrative to tell about a related event from an earlier time
fluency Ability to read a text quickly with accuracy and expression; freedom from word-identification problems that might hinder comprehension in silent reading or the expression of ideas in oral reading; automaticity.
foreshadowing a literary technique with which the author gives hints or clues about an event before it happens
form or genre organization of specific types of writing within a general category of purpose/mode (e.g., if the form is editorial, then purpose/mode is persuasive or possibly expository; if the form is a tall tale, then purpose/mode is narrative)
format most often used to refer to layout or visual presentation of text
free writing a prewriting technique in which the writer drafts quickly, without stopping, editing, or self-correcting, to discover what he or she knows, thinks, or feels
functional document a technical document such as a business letter, computer manual, and trade publication that assists one in getting information in order to perform a task.
generalize taking what is known and using it to make an inference about the nature of similar text. Generalizations lead to transferable understandings that can be supported by fact. They describe the characteristics of classes or categories of persons, places, living and non-living things, and events.
genre terms used to classify literary and informational works into categories (e.g., biography, mystery, historical fiction).
gist the most central thought or idea in a text.
graphic features features that illustrate information in text such as graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, tables, etc.
graphic organizer a visual representation of knowledge, concepts, and ideas and their relationships within an organized frame (e.g., concept maps, word webs, story boards); organizers that provide a visual representation of facts and concepts from a text
icons a symbol on a computer screen that represents a certain function, command or program on the computer’s hard drive. When an icon is clicked on, some action is performed such as opening or moving a file making computing more user-friendly.
idiom words used in a special way that may be different from their literal meaning (e.g. “you drive me crazy” or “hit the deck”).
imagery figurative language used to produce mental pictures and appeal to the senses
independent level the level at which the student reads fluently with excellent comprehension. The accuracy with which the student reads is 95-100 percent.
infer to understand something not directly stated in the text by using past experience and knowledge combined with the text.
inference The reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of indirect evidence and prior conclusions rather than direct evidence from the text.
inflectional endings a letter or group of letters which when added to the end of a word does not change its part of speech, but adjusts the word to fit the meaning of the sentence (e.g., girl, girls, jump, jumped, big, bigger).
informational or expository writing writing that has as its primary purpose explanation or the communication of details, facts, and information
informational/expository text A form of written composition that has as its primary purpose explanation or the communication of details, facts, and discipline- or content-specific information (e.g., content area textbooks, encyclopedias, biographies).
instructional level the level at which the student can make maximum progress in reading with teacher guidance. The accuracy with which the student reads is
90-94%.
irony the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; the words say one thing, but mean another.
I-search paper student poses a question to guide his or her personally motivated inquiry, develops a search plan that identifies how information will be gathered, and follows a search plan and gathers information (often through interviews). he/she then drafts, revises, edits, and publishes report. the I-search report includes my search questions, my search process, what I learned, what this means to me, and references.
key word searches a key term or phrase the computer used in order to begin an online search for specific information
language registry the systematic differences of language use determined by regional, social or situational changes (e.g., a child might say “yup” at home, but would be expected to say “yes” at school).
learning log a journal or notebook in which a student records questions, problems, and thoughts about a particular subject, idea, or concept as it is studied or learned
letter patterns Common letter groupings that represent specific sounds (e.g., /ing/ in string and /ough/ in enough).
listening trio group of three students, one of whom reads his or her paper while the other two offer feedback during peer revision
literary devices techniques used to convey or enhance an author’s message or voice (e.g., idiom, figurative language, exaggeration, dialogue, and imagery)
literary writing creating original writing rather than analyzing or synthesizing the writing of others (e.g., poetry, short stories, novels, plays, scripts)
literary/narrative genres categories used to classify literary works, usually by form, technique, or content (e.g., novel, essay, short story, comedy, epic)
literary/narrative text text that describes action or events; usually includes a problem and resolution; usually, but not always fiction.
main idea The Central idea of a passage; the chief topic of a passage expressed or implied in a word or phrase; the topic sentence of a paragraph; a statement in sentence form which gives the stated or implied major topic of a passage and the specific way in which the passage is limited in content or reference.
mental imagery words or phrases that appeal to one or more of the five senses allowing the reader to form mental pictures or images while reading.
mentor text text models that exemplify elements of the writer’s craft that students can explore and practice
metaphor a figure of speech indirectly comparing two essentially dissimilar things; used to create new connections for the reader (e.g., the fog creeps in on little cat feet.); a figure of speech that compares two things without using the word like or as (e.g., laughter is the best medicine).
mode a type of writing determined by the writer’s purpose; often used interchangeably with purpose (e.g., if the writer’s purpose is to explain, then the mode is expository.).
mood emotional atmosphere (e.g., suspenseful, peaceful, mysterious, terrifying) created by the writer’s purposeful choice of vocabulary, pacing, and details
multiple eaning words words with the same spelling and/or pronunciation which have more than one meaning depending on their context (e.g., “The wind blew,” and “Please wind the clock”).
narrative presentation of a series of events in a purposeful sequence to tell a story, either fictional or factual
non-technical documents In this context, non-technical refers to documents (e.g., memos, lists, job applications) in which the content and vocabulary are not tied to a specific subject.
oddity tasks In phonemic awareness, identifying which word in a set of three or four that has the “odd” sound (e.g., run, rug, and toy).
on-demand writing timed writing, often a first draft with minor revisions that demonstrates student’s ability to apply writing strategies and skills independently on a single task in a limited time. often the purpose, audience, topic, and form are specified in a common prompt
onomatopoeia words that imitate the sounds of movement, animals, or objects (e.g., buzz, hiss, clickety-clack) where the word’s pronunciation suggests its meaning
onset and rime parts of spoken language that are syllables. An onset is the initial consonant(s) sound of a syllable (the onset of bag is b-; of swim, is sw-). A rime is the part of the syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (the rime of bag is –ag; of swim, -im). Not all syllables or words have an onset, but they all have a rime (e.g., the word or syllable “out” is a rime without an onset).
oral language structure spoken language has five linguistic systems. They include the phonological (sounds of language), the syntactic (order and grammar), the semantic (meanings), the pragmatic (social interactive), and lexicon (vocabulary).
organizational features tools the author uses to organize ideas (e.g., captions and headings).
organizational structures the organization of a text.
paragraph a unit of meaning signaled by indenting the first word or by inserting a line space between sections of writing
parallel structure the repetition of phrases and sentences that are syntactically similar (e.g., phrases all starting with verbs in the same tense)
paraphrase restating the meaning in own words, retaining all of the ideas without making an interpretation or evaluation
patterned poetry poetry based on a prescribed syllable count, parts of speech, or shape (e.g., diamond or diamante poem)
patterned sentences a construction used as a base to create new sentences or when young writers substitute a word while keeping the rest of the sentence the same (I like pizza. I like snowflakes. I like whales.)
personification a figure of speech in which nonhuman objects such as ideas, objects or animals, are given human characteristics (e.g., “flowers danced about the lawn”).
persuasion writing that convinces the designated audience to support a point of view, make a decision, or take an action
persuasive devices logical and/or emotional appeals in order to move an audience to action (e.g., imagery, rhetorical questions, parallelism, emotive language)
phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a spoken word that makes a difference in the word’s meaning.
phonemic awareness the ability to hear; identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.
phonetic spelling spelling according to the sequence of sounds instead of according to spelling rules (e.g., fon instead of phone)
phonics the understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (the sounds of spoken language) and graphemes (the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written language).
phonological awareness a general understanding of the sound structure of words, including rhymes, syllables, and phonemes.
plot the structure of the events in a story usually including rising action, climax, and resolution.
point of view the perspective from which a narrator tells the story. The three points of view are first person, third person, and omniscient.
point-by-point comparison a structure that discusses two subjects together, within the same paragraph, around one criterion of comparison
portfolio a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits to the student (and/or others) the student’s efforts, progress, or achievement
predict to foresee what might happen in a text based on a reader’s background knowledge or schema.
prefix an affix attached before a base word or root (e.g., re- in reprint).
prewriting the thinking and planning the writer does before drafting, including considering the topic, audience, and purpose; gathering information; choosing a form; determining the role of the writer; and making a plan
primary sources the original source of resource information (e.g., newspaper, letter, encyclopedia, book).
print conventions the rules that govern the customary use of print in reading and writing including directionality of print, punctuation and capitalization.
prior knowledge the knowledge that stems from previous experience. Note prior knowledge is a key component of the schema theory of reading comprehension.
propaganda techniques methods used in creating propaganda such as bandwagon, peer pressure, repetition, and testimonials/endorsements.
publishing a final draft shared (written or orally) with an audience, large or small; displayed publicly; sent to a newspaper, contest, or magazine; or posted on a wall or website
pull-down menus a computer term that refers to a list of words that appears when the cursor is on a menu item; also called a drop down list box.
quatrain a poem or stanza within a poem that consists of four lines, often with alternating lines rhyming (a/b/a/b)
questioning strategies In these strategies a reader may ask questions about a text before, during, and after reading and then searches for answers. (e.g., Question Answer Response (QAR) Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review (SQ3R)
read-around group a small group of students take turns reading each others’ pieces during peer revision while receiving feedback from the rest of the group
reading response journals booklets where students keep personal reflections about their reading. response journals can include lists of words to learn, goals for reading (e.g., number of books or pages read), things they do well as readers, predictions made prior to and during reading, thoughts, pictures, feelings, questions, or connections to other texts. responses can be made before, during, and after reading
recursive writing does not follow a linear process. the act of composing involves prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. writers often perform these acts many times in a different order as a piece is completed. as authors write, they think a little, write a little, and go back and cross out something already written or add something. they also may reread and think some more. in this recursive process, writers do not have to start at the beginning — they can start with the easiest or most difficult part
research report an expository account of an event or findings about a topic that a student has researched
resolution the ending of a story where the conflicts are resolved and loose ends are tied together
revise/revision the process of reworking or re-seeing writing, which includes considering changes in audience, purpose, focus, organization, and style. it includes elaborating, emphasizing, clarifying, or simplifying text (adding, deleting, reordering, or substituting)
rhetorical question a question where an answer is not expected; often used in persuasive writing to involve the audience and create interest
root words Meaningful base form of a complex word, after all affixes are removed. A root may be independent, or free, as read in unreadable, or may be dependent, or bound, as-liter- (from the Greek for letter) in illiterate.
rubric criteria for evaluation and descriptions of evidence for meeting that criteria; allows for standardized evaluation according to specified criteria
run-on sentence a sentence in which two independent clauses are written together without any punctuation to separate them, as if they were a single sentence
sarcasm the use of praise to “make fun of” or “put down” someone or something. The praise is not sincere and is actually intended to hurt someone’s feelings.
scan to examine or read something quickly, but selectively, for a purpose.
scanning examining or reading something quickly, but selectively, for a purpose.
schema the accumulated knowledge drawn from life experiences that a person has to help understand concepts, roles, emotions, and events.
secondary sources sources of information that are derived from primary or original sources.
segment the act of separating the sounds in a word in order to assist decoding or spelling.
semantic mapping a graphic display of a cluster of words that are meaningfully related.
sentence structure any of a number of basic sentence types in a language; the pattern or structure of word order in sentences, clauses, or phrases.
sequence the arrangement or ordering of information, content, or ideas (e.g., chronological, easy to difficult, part to whole).
setting the time(s) and place(s) in which a narrative takes place.
shared writing teacher leads class or group in composing a text, with teacher scribing for the students so they can focus on composing the text. the teacher may lead the class to explore various text types, construct more complex sentences, edit, and proofread. the class is encouraged to contribute to the construction of the text
short vowel sounds the sound of /a/ as in cat, /e/ as in hen, /i/ as in fit, /o/ as in hot, /u/ as in pup.
sight words words that are immediately recognized as wholes and do not require word analysis for identification.
simile a figure of speech directly comparing two essentially dissimilar things; the comparison is signaled with like or as; used to make writing more vivid, fresh, or interesting (e.g., “like ancient trees, we die from the top”)
skim to read or glance through quickly.
sound devices use of assonance, consonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm to produce the musical cadence in poetry
spatial organization pattern for ordering descriptive writing where items are arranged according to their physical positions or relationships (e.g., front to back, left to right)
story elements the critical parts of a story include character, setting, plot, problem, solution. At upper grades the terms problem and solution change to conflict and resolution.
story frame graphic organizer used to plan the development of a story or visual or multimedia presentation
story structure the pattern of organization in narration that characterizes a particular type of story.
structural analysis the identification of word-meaning elements, as re- and read in reread, to help understand the meaning of a word as a whole.
sub-genres genres within other genres (e.g., haiku is a sub-genre of poetry, and mystery is a sub-genre of fiction).
subplot a minor collection of events in a novel or drama that have some connection with the main plot and should, (1) comment on, (2) complicate/defeat, or (3) support the main plot.
suffix an affix attached to the end of a base, root, or stems that changes meaning or grammatical function of the word (e.g., –en added to ox to form oxen).
summarize to determine what is important in the text, condense this information, and put it into the students’ own words.
summary a synthesis of the important ideas in a text presented in a condensed form.
syllabication division of words into syllables. A syllable is a word part that contains a vowel, or in spoken language a vowel sound (e.g., e-vent; news-pa-per; ver-y).
synonyms a word having a similar meaning to the meaning of another word.
syntax the way words, phrases, and clauses are combined to form sentence order (e.g., in English, subject-verb-object is a common pattern.)
synthesize pulling together ideas or information to create a new idea or to develop a common framework for understanding
task-oriented text text written specifically to direct the reader as to how to complete a task.
t-chart a graphic organizer composed of two columns with a heading for each column across the top and a dividing line between the columns
technical content or vocabulary directly related to specific knowledge or information in a career or interest area.
technical writing type of expository writing most often used to convey information and give directions for technical or business purposes
tertiary sources third-level sources (e.g., research summaries)
text complexity text demands on the reader increase substantially throughout the grades. Items that influence complexity of text include highly specialized vocabulary and concepts; abstract concepts presented with minimal context; increased concept load/density; readability considerations; and unique writing patterns in informational text.
text features a prominent characteristic of a particular type of text such as chapter titles, sub-headings and bold faced words in a history text.
text organizational structures expository text is structured in certain ways. The five text structures that students are most likely to encounter are cause-effect, compare/contrast, description, problem/solution, and chronological or time order.
theme a topic; a major idea or proposition broad enough to cover the entire scope of a literary work. A theme may be stated or implicit, but clues to it may be found in the ideas that are given special prominence or tend to recur in a work.
transitions words, phrases, or full sentences that establish logical connections between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of a piece of writing; often used to signal relationships between ideas
two-syllable rhyme (also called double or feminine rhyme) rhyme that happens in two syllables of a word rather than in one (e.g., yellow, fellow)
unfamiliar text unseen or unpracticed reading material.
vernacular language of a particular dialect or region
vocabulary strategies a systematic plan to increase understanding of words (e.g., categorizing and classifying, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, concept of definition maps, analogies, using the dictionary and other reference materials, using word parts, using morphemic analysis, using context clues).
voice the sense of the person behind the writing (e.g., serious, honest, compassionate, or angry); writing that captures the correct level of distance, formality, or personality for the purpose of the writing and the audience
word bank storage place for learners to keep written words that they have learned. students can refer to the word bank as they are writing or editing to find out how to spell a word
word families a collection of words that share common orthographic rimes (e.g., thank, prank, dank).
word recognition strategies strategies for determining the pronunciation and meaning of words in print.
word wall a systematically organized collection of words (usually alphabetically and sometimes by topic) displayed in large letters on a wall or other large display place in the classroom. it is a tool to use, not just a display. word walls are designed to promote group learning and be shared by a group of students
writing continuum an articulation of developmental stages of written language growth as well as a source of information about the competencies that students are expected to learn. the descriptors list specific behaviors that are typical of development at particular ages or grades
writing guide expectations and guidelines for writing in general or for writing particular types of papers or assignments
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