affixes groups of syllables (e.g., prefixes, such as anti- or post-, and suffixes, such as –ly or –ment) which, when added to a word or a root, alter the meaning of the word.

alliteration the repetition of the same sound, usually of a consonant, at the beginning of two or more words of a sentence or line of poetry; used to draw attention to words or ideas or to create music with the language

alliterative having the quality of alliteration, as in poetry (e.g., Whitman’s line, “all summer in the sound of the sea”).

analogy this is a comparison of two pairs that have the same relationship.  The key is to discover the relationship between the first pair, so you can choose the correct second pair (i.e., part-to-whole, opposites).

analysis separation of a whole into its parts for individual study.

analyze to compare in order to rank items by importance or to provide reasons.  Identify the important parts that make up the whole and determine how the parts are related to one another.

anchor paper a student paper that is an example of a score point described on a rubric

anecdote a short narrative account of an interesting or humorous incident or a short narrative used as an example in expository or persuasive writing

anticipation guide a flexible strategy used to activate student’s thoughts and opinions about a topic and to link their prior knowledge to new material. For example, a series of teacher generated statements about a topic that students respond to and discuss before reading.

antonyms words that mean the opposite (e.g., light is an antonym of dark).

assonance a repetition of vowel sounds without the repetition of consonant sounds (e.g., dance, clap)

assumptions thoughts accepted as true without proof.

audience the expected readers of a text

author’s chair one student shares his or her writing orally with the entire class. this student then asks other students to either share a comment on what they thought or ask a question about the writing. use of an author’s chair gives children feedback on their writing, models conferencing, and develops a sense of community for writing

author’s craft stylistic choices an author/poet makes regarding elements such as organizational patterns, vocabulary, images, symbols, and point of view to produce a desired effect 

author’s perspective the author’s subjective view as reflected in his/her written expression.

author’s purpose the reason an author writes, such as to entertain, inform, or persuade.

author’s style the author’s manner of helping the reader understand his/her written work. 

author’s tone the author’s attitude as reflected in the manner of the author’s written expression.

automaticity ability to recognize a word (or series of words) in text effortlessly and rapidly.

blend in decoding, it is the reader’s act of sounding out and then combining the sounds in a word to assist in the pronunciation.

claim thesis or main point, especially in persuasive writing

class anthology collection of writing submitted by individual class members

cluster or word web a prewriting strategy where the writer maps thoughts about a topic using lines or arrows to show how ideas are related — intended to suggest an organizational pattern for main ideas and supporting details

cohesion (cohesive – adj.) logical connectedness that holds parts of text together

colloquial conversational, informal language

common consonant sounds speech sounds made by obstructing air flow and causes audible friction in varying amounts.  Common consonant sounds include   /b/, /k/, /d/, /f/, /g/, /h/, /j/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /kw/, /r/, /s/, /t/, /v/, /w/, /ks/, /y/, /z/.

common inflectional ending  a common suffix that changes the form or function of a word, but not its basic meaning, such as ‘-ed’ in ‘sprayed’, ‘-ing’ in ‘gathering’.

common sight words words that are immediately recognized as a whole and do not require word analysis for identification.  These words usually have irregular spellings.

common vowel patterns a vowel is the open sound.  The mouth must be open to produce the sound of a vowel in a syllable.  The most common vowel patterns are the sound/spellings that students encounter most frequently in text (e.g., a-e, ee, oi, ow, ou, oo).

comprehension monitoring strategies strategies used to monitor one’s reading by being aware of what one does understand and what one does not understand.  The reader’s awareness determines which comprehension-repair strategies to apply. 

comprehension repair strategies strategies used by a reader to regain comprehension as a result of comprehension monitoring.  These strategies include but are not limited to re-reading, word recognition strategies, looking back, reading ahead, slowing down, paraphrasing by sections, using context, and taking notes. (Also referred to as “fix-up strategies”)

comprehension strategies a procedure or set of steps to follow in order to enhance text understanding (e.g., making inferences, predicting outcomes).

concepts of print insights about the ways in which print works.  Basic concepts about print include; identification of a book’s front and back covers and title page, directionality (knowledge that readers and writers move from left to right, top to bottom, front to back); spacing (distance used to separate words); recognition of letters and words; connection between spoken and written language; understanding of the function of capitalization and punctuation; sequencing and locating skills.

conjunctive adverb adverbs that are used as conjunctions to join two complete sentences (e.g., moreover, however, therefore, furthermore, indeed, nevertheless, but, consequently)

consonance repetition of consonant sounds particularly at the ends of words (e.g., to kick the black rock)

content area vocabulary vocabulary found in specific subject areas (e.g., “integer” in math and “pioneer” in social studies).

content/academic text text from literature, science, social studies, math and other academic areas that students need to read to be academically successful in school.

content/academic vocabulary terms from literature, science, social studies, and math and other academic vocabulary that students need to know to be successful readers.

content-specific writing using writing as a tool for learning or writing within the common language of a discipline (e.g., writing in history or science, using the conventions appropriate to the discipline)

context clues information from the surrounding text that helps identify a word or word group.  These could be words, phrases, sentences, illustrations, syntax, typographic signals, definitions, examples, and restatements.

context the social or cultural situation in which the spoken or written word occurs and is often used to refer to the material surrounding an unknown word.

conventions rules of standard English usage, capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and spelling; common features that have become traditional or expected within a specific form or discipline 

culturally relevant reading materials to which students in a classroom can identify or relate.  Depending on the student cultural make-up in a classroom, relevant reading material can change from year to year.

directionality the direction that print is read in a given culture (e.g. in Western languages, it is the understanding that print is read from left to right and top to bottom.

double-entry log a form of learning log or journal in which a student keeps notes on the left side of a double column and then responds, asks questions, analyzes the topic, or relates the information to other ideas on the right side

draft verb — compose, noun — preliminary version of a piece of writing

edit preparing writing for final draft by checking spelling, punctuation, capitalization, usage, paragraph indentation, neatness, and legibility

electronic sources resources for gathering information such as the internet, television, radio, CD ROM encyclopedia, and so on.

elements of style word choice, voice, sentence structure, and sentence length.

environmental print any print found in the physical environment, such as street signs, billboards, labels, business signs; the print of everyday life (e.g., the symbols, signs, numbers, and colors found in McDonald’s, Wal-Mart, Exxon, Pizza Hut, and 7-up and on websites), offering excellent entry points for young children to begin to learn to read, write, and do math

extended metaphor a metaphor continuing throughout an entire text; often used to create unity or rhetorical effect

figurative language word images and figures of speech not meant to be taken literally; used to enrich language (e.g., simile, metaphor, personification)

flashback interruption in the chronological sequence of a narrative to tell about a related event from an earlier time

fluency Ability to read a text quickly with accuracy and expression; freedom from word-identification problems that might hinder comprehension in silent reading or the expression of ideas in oral reading; automaticity.

foreshadowing a literary technique with which the author gives hints or clues about an event before it happens

form or genre organization of specific types of writing within a general category of purpose/mode (e.g., if the form is editorial, then purpose/mode is persuasive or possibly expository; if the form is a tall tale, then purpose/mode is narrative)

format most often used to refer to layout or visual presentation of text

free writing a prewriting technique in which the writer drafts quickly, without stopping, editing, or self-correcting, to discover what he or she knows, thinks, or feels

functional document  a technical document such as a business letter, computer manual, and trade publication that assists one in getting information in order to perform a task.

generalize taking what is known and using it to make an inference about the nature of similar text.  Generalizations lead to transferable understandings that can be supported by fact.  They describe the characteristics of classes or categories of persons, places, living and non-living things, and events. 

genre terms used to classify literary and informational works into categories (e.g., biography, mystery, historical fiction). 

gist the most central thought or idea in a text.

graphic features features that illustrate information in text such as graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, tables, etc.

graphic organizer a visual representation of knowledge, concepts, and ideas and their relationships within an organized frame (e.g., concept maps, word webs, story boards); organizers that provide a visual representation of facts and concepts from a text

icons a symbol on a computer screen that represents a certain function, command or      program on the computer’s hard drive.  When an icon is clicked on, some action is performed such as opening or moving a file making computing more user-friendly.

idiom words used in a special way that may be different from their literal meaning (e.g. “you drive me crazy” or “hit the deck”).

imagery figurative language used to produce mental pictures and appeal to the senses

independent level the level at which the student reads fluently with excellent comprehension.  The accuracy with which the student reads is 95-100 percent.

infer to understand something not directly stated in the text by using past experience and knowledge combined with the text.

inference The reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of indirect evidence and prior conclusions rather than direct evidence from the text.

inflectional endings a letter or group of letters which when added to the end of a word does not change its part of speech, but adjusts the word to fit the meaning of the sentence (e.g., girl, girls, jump, jumped, big, bigger).

informational or expository writing writing that has as its primary purpose explanation or the communication of details, facts, and information

informational/expository text A form of written composition that has as its primary purpose explanation or the communication of details, facts, and discipline- or content-specific information (e.g., content area textbooks, encyclopedias, biographies).

instructional level the level at which the student can make maximum progress in reading with teacher guidance.  The accuracy with which the student reads is
90-94%.

irony the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning; the words say one thing, but mean another.

I-search paper student poses a question to guide his or her personally motivated inquiry, develops a search plan that identifies how information will be gathered, and follows a search plan and gathers information (often through interviews). he/she then drafts, revises, edits, and publishes report. the I-search report includes my search questions, my search process, what I learned, what this means to me, and references.

key word searches a key term or phrase the computer used in order to begin an online search for specific information

language registry the systematic differences of language use determined by regional, social or situational changes (e.g., a child might say “yup” at home, but would be expected to say “yes” at school).

learning log a journal or notebook in which a student records questions, problems, and thoughts about a particular subject, idea, or concept as it is studied or learned

letter patterns Common letter groupings that represent specific sounds (e.g., /ing/ in string and /ough/ in enough). 

listening trio group of three students, one of whom reads his or her paper while the other two offer feedback during peer revision

literary devices techniques used to convey or enhance an author’s message or voice (e.g., idiom, figurative language, exaggeration, dialogue, and imagery)

literary writing creating original writing rather than analyzing or synthesizing the writing of others (e.g., poetry, short stories, novels, plays, scripts)

literary/narrative genres categories used to classify literary works, usually by form, technique, or content (e.g., novel, essay, short story, comedy, epic)

literary/narrative text text that describes action or events; usually includes a problem and resolution; usually, but not always fiction.

main idea The Central idea of a passage; the chief topic of a passage expressed or implied in a word or phrase; the topic sentence of a paragraph; a statement in sentence form which gives the stated or implied major topic of a passage and the specific way in which the passage is limited in content or reference.

mental imagery words or phrases that appeal to one or more of the five senses allowing the reader to form mental pictures or images while reading. 

mentor text text models that exemplify elements of the writer’s craft that students can explore and practice

metaphor a figure of speech indirectly comparing two essentially dissimilar things; used to create new connections for the reader (e.g., the fog creeps in on little cat feet.); a figure of speech that compares two things without using the word like or as (e.g., laughter is the best medicine).

mode a type of writing determined by the writer’s purpose; often used interchangeably with purpose (e.g., if the writer’s purpose is to explain, then the mode is expository.).

mood emotional atmosphere (e.g., suspenseful, peaceful, mysterious, terrifying) created by the writer’s purposeful choice of vocabulary, pacing, and details

multiple eaning words words with the same spelling and/or pronunciation which have more than one meaning depending on their context (e.g., “The wind blew,” and “Please wind the clock”).

narrative presentation of a series of events in a purposeful sequence to tell a story, either fictional or factual

non-technical documents In this context, non-technical refers to documents (e.g., memos, lists, job applications) in which the content and vocabulary are not tied to a specific subject.

oddity tasks In phonemic awareness, identifying which word in a set of three or four that has the “odd” sound (e.g., run, rug, and toy). 

on-demand writing timed writing, often a first draft with minor revisions that demonstrates student’s ability to apply writing strategies and skills independently on a single task in a limited time. often the purpose, audience, topic, and form are specified in a common prompt

onomatopoeia words that imitate the sounds of movement, animals, or objects (e.g., buzz, hiss, clickety-clack) where the word’s pronunciation suggests its meaning

onset and rime parts of spoken language that are syllables.  An onset is the initial consonant(s) sound of a syllable (the onset of bag is b-; of swim, is sw-).  A rime is the part of the syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (the rime of bag is –ag; of swim, -im).  Not all syllables or words have an onset, but they all have a rime (e.g., the word or syllable “out” is a rime without an onset).

oral language structure spoken language has five linguistic systems.  They include the phonological (sounds of language), the syntactic (order and grammar), the semantic (meanings), the pragmatic (social interactive), and lexicon (vocabulary).

organizational features tools the author uses to organize ideas (e.g., captions and headings).

organizational structures the organization of a text. 

paragraph a unit of meaning signaled by indenting the first word or by inserting a line space between sections of writing

parallel structure the repetition of phrases and sentences that are syntactically similar (e.g., phrases all starting with verbs in the same tense)

paraphrase restating the meaning in own words, retaining all of the ideas without making an interpretation or evaluation

patterned poetry poetry based on a prescribed syllable count, parts of speech, or shape (e.g., diamond or diamante poem)

patterned sentences a construction used as a base to create new sentences or when young writers substitute a word while keeping the rest of the sentence the same (I like pizza. I like snowflakes. I like whales.)

personification a figure of speech in which nonhuman objects such as ideas, objects or animals, are given human characteristics (e.g., “flowers danced about the lawn”).

persuasion writing that convinces the designated audience to support a point of view, make a decision, or take an action

persuasive devices logical and/or emotional appeals in order to move an audience to action (e.g., imagery, rhetorical questions, parallelism, emotive language)

phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a spoken word that makes a difference in the word’s meaning.

phonemic awareness the ability to hear; identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.

phonetic spelling spelling according to the sequence of sounds instead of according to spelling rules (e.g., fon instead of phone)

phonics the understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (the sounds of spoken language) and graphemes (the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written language).

phonological awareness a general understanding of the sound structure of words, including rhymes, syllables, and phonemes. 

plot the structure of the events in a story usually including rising action, climax, and resolution.

point of view the perspective from which a narrator tells the story. The three points of view are first person, third person, and omniscient.

point-by-point comparison a structure that discusses two subjects together, within the same paragraph, around one criterion of comparison

portfolio a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits to the student (and/or others) the student’s efforts, progress, or achievement

predict to foresee what might happen in a text based on a reader’s background knowledge or schema.

prefix an affix attached before a base word or root (e.g., re- in reprint).

prewriting the thinking and planning the writer does before drafting, including considering the topic, audience, and purpose; gathering information; choosing a form; determining the role of the writer; and making a plan

primary sources the original source of resource information (e.g., newspaper, letter, encyclopedia, book).

print conventions the rules that govern the customary use of print in reading and writing including directionality of print, punctuation and capitalization.

prior knowledge the knowledge that stems from previous experience.  Note prior knowledge is a key component of the schema theory of reading comprehension.

propaganda techniques methods used in creating propaganda such as bandwagon, peer pressure, repetition, and testimonials/endorsements.

publishing a final draft shared (written or orally) with an audience, large or small; displayed publicly; sent to a newspaper, contest, or magazine; or posted on a wall or website

pull-down menus a computer term that refers to a list of words that appears when the cursor is on a menu item; also called a drop down list box.

quatrain a poem or stanza within a poem that consists of four lines, often with alternating lines rhyming (a/b/a/b)

questioning strategies In these strategies a reader may ask questions about a text before, during, and after reading and then searches for answers. (e.g., Question Answer Response (QAR) Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review (SQ3R)

read-around group a small group of students take turns reading each others’ pieces during peer revision while receiving feedback from the rest of the group

reading response journals booklets where students keep personal reflections about their reading. response journals can include lists of words to learn, goals for reading (e.g., number of books or pages read), things they do well as readers, predictions made prior to and during reading, thoughts, pictures, feelings, questions, or connections to other texts. responses can be made before, during, and after reading

recursive writing does not follow a linear process. the act of composing involves prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. writers often perform these acts many times in a different order as a piece is completed. as authors write, they think a little, write a little, and go back and cross out something already written or add something. they also may reread and think some more. in this recursive process, writers do not have to start at the beginning — they can start with the easiest or most difficult part

research report an expository account of an event or findings about a topic that a student has researched

resolution the ending of a story where the conflicts are resolved and loose ends are tied together

revise/revision the process of reworking or re-seeing writing, which includes considering changes in audience, purpose, focus, organization, and style. it includes elaborating, emphasizing, clarifying, or simplifying text (adding, deleting, reordering, or substituting)

rhetorical question a question where an answer is not expected; often used in persuasive writing to involve the audience and create interest

root words Meaningful base form of a complex word, after all affixes are removed.  A root may be independent, or free, as read in unreadable, or may be dependent, or bound, as-liter- (from the Greek for letter) in illiterate.

rubric criteria for evaluation and descriptions of evidence for meeting that criteria; allows for standardized evaluation according to specified criteria

run-on sentence a sentence in which two independent clauses are written together without any punctuation to separate them, as if they were a single sentence

sarcasm the use of praise to “make fun of” or “put down” someone or something.  The praise is not sincere and is actually intended to hurt someone’s feelings.

scan to examine or read something quickly, but selectively, for a purpose.

scanning examining or reading something quickly, but selectively, for a purpose.

schema the accumulated knowledge drawn from life experiences that a person has to help understand concepts, roles, emotions, and events. 

secondary sources sources of information that are derived from primary or original sources.

segment the act of separating the sounds in a word in order to assist decoding or spelling.

semantic mapping a graphic display of a cluster of words that are meaningfully related.

sentence structure any of a number of basic sentence types in a language; the pattern or structure of word order in sentences, clauses, or phrases.

sequence the arrangement or ordering of information, content, or ideas (e.g., chronological, easy to difficult, part to whole).

setting the time(s) and place(s) in which a narrative takes place.

shared writing teacher leads class or group in composing a text, with teacher scribing for the students so they can focus on composing the text. the teacher may lead the class to explore various text types, construct more complex sentences, edit, and proofread. the class is encouraged to contribute to the construction of the text

short vowel sounds the sound of /a/ as in cat, /e/ as in hen, /i/ as in fit, /o/ as in hot, /u/ as in pup.

sight words words that are immediately recognized as wholes and do not require word analysis for identification. 

simile a figure of speech directly comparing two essentially dissimilar things; the comparison is signaled with like or as; used to make writing more vivid, fresh, or interesting (e.g., “like ancient trees, we die from the top”)

skim to read or glance through quickly.

sound devices use of assonance, consonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm to produce the musical cadence in poetry

spatial organization pattern for ordering descriptive writing where items are arranged according to their physical positions or relationships (e.g., front to back, left to right)

story elements the critical parts of a story include character, setting, plot, problem, solution.  At upper grades the terms problem and solution change to conflict and resolution. 

story frame graphic organizer used to plan the development of a story or visual or multimedia presentation

story structure the pattern of organization in narration that characterizes a particular type of story.

structural analysis the identification of word-meaning elements, as re- and read in reread, to help understand the meaning of a word as a whole.

sub-genres genres within other genres (e.g., haiku is a sub-genre of poetry, and mystery is a sub-genre of fiction).

subplot  a minor collection of events in a novel or drama that have some connection   with the main plot and should, (1) comment on, (2) complicate/defeat, or (3) support the main plot.

suffix an affix attached to the end of a base, root, or stems that changes meaning or grammatical function of the word (e.g., –en added to ox to form oxen).

summarize to determine what is important in the text, condense this information, and put it into the students’ own words.

summary a synthesis of the important ideas in a text presented in a condensed form.

syllabication division of words into syllables.  A syllable is a word part that contains a vowel, or in spoken language a vowel sound (e.g., e-vent; news-pa-per; ver-y).

synonyms a word having a similar meaning to the meaning of another word.

syntax the way words, phrases, and clauses are combined to form sentence order (e.g., in English, subject-verb-object is a common pattern.)

synthesize pulling together ideas or information to create a new idea or to develop a common framework for understanding

task-oriented text text written specifically to direct the reader as to how to complete a task.

t-chart a graphic organizer composed of two columns with a heading for each column across the top and a dividing line between the columns

technical content or vocabulary directly related to specific knowledge or information in a career or interest area.

technical writing type of expository writing most often used to convey information and give directions for technical or business purposes

tertiary sources third-level sources (e.g., research summaries)

text complexity text demands on the reader increase substantially throughout the grades. Items that influence complexity of text include highly specialized vocabulary and concepts; abstract concepts presented with minimal context; increased concept load/density; readability considerations; and unique writing patterns in informational text.

text features a prominent characteristic of a particular type of text such as chapter titles, sub-headings and bold faced words in a history text.

text organizational structures expository text is structured in certain ways.  The five text structures that students are most likely to encounter are cause-effect, compare/contrast, description, problem/solution, and chronological or time order.

theme a topic; a major idea or proposition broad enough to cover the entire scope of a literary work.  A theme may be stated or implicit, but clues to it may be found in the ideas that are given special prominence or tend to recur in a work.

transitions words, phrases, or full sentences that establish logical connections between sentences, paragraphs, and sections of a piece of writing; often used to signal relationships between ideas

two-syllable rhyme (also called double or feminine rhyme) rhyme that happens in two syllables of a word rather than in one (e.g., yellow, fellow)

unfamiliar text unseen or unpracticed reading material.

vernacular language of a particular dialect or region

vocabulary strategies a systematic plan to increase understanding of words (e.g., categorizing and classifying, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, concept of definition maps, analogies, using the dictionary and other reference materials, using word parts, using morphemic analysis, using context clues).

voice the sense of the person behind the writing (e.g., serious, honest, compassionate, or angry); writing that captures the correct level of distance, formality, or personality for the purpose of the writing and the audience

word bank storage place for learners to keep written words that they have learned. students can refer to the word bank as they are writing or editing to find out how to spell a word

word families a collection of words that share common orthographic rimes (e.g., thank, prank, dank).

word recognition strategies strategies for determining the pronunciation and meaning of words in print.

word wall a systematically organized collection of words (usually alphabetically and sometimes by topic) displayed in large letters on a wall or other large display place in the classroom. it is a tool to use, not just a display. word walls are designed to promote group learning and be shared by a group of students

writing continuum an articulation of developmental stages of written language growth as well as a source of information about the competencies that students are expected to learn. the descriptors list specific behaviors that are typical of development at particular ages or grades

writing guide expectations and guidelines for writing in general or for writing particular types of papers or assignments